Men of the
North - Part 4: Making War on Rebellion
"WHAT
WE CANNOT STOP."
"Pour les Irish" TE Lawrence wrote to a bedraggled English
general during the Irish War of Independence, "Only one horrid word: you cannot make war upon
rebellion."[i]
General Brian Kimmins assumed charge of British troops in the north in 1955
and, a veteran of both World Wars with experience in directing raids, he
appreciated Lawrence's view. So did the Prime Minister, Lord Brookborough,
"What we cannot stop are these sporadic raids," Brookeborough told
the press. "You can disperse the military all over the country but you
would lose your striking force."[ii]
Meaning: the army would cease to be effective combating the threat and become
targets themselves. By summer of 1957 it was not hard to figure out that
although fond of land mines, ambushes, and timed explosions, the IRA was no
longer capable of organized assaults. Instead of confronting a ghost, Kimmins
kept the army in a highly subdued role in which they withdrew into their
barracks like a turtle into its shell and refused the IRA's enticements to come
out. The better informed, locally-run RUC and B-Specials took up the dirty day
to day business. This deprived the IRA of the targets it sought - needed- for
its war to gain momentum, and forced them to settle for inglorious
"incidents." "Though the people might be irritated by the
pin-pricks," Brookeborough reminded Unionist leaders, "the important
was that the IRA were not accomplishing their objective."[iii]
Despite the latter's efforts to soothe feelings, Unionist
politicians continued to hold the view that the stricter the measure the
better. In early July the Home Minister, W.B. Topping assured them the question of
"curfew, armored vehicles and allied matters were continually under
consideration and review."[iv]
"The situation in Newry seemed touch and go for a while," Bowyer Bell
writes, "to the delight of the IRA GHQ."[v]
Jim Rowntree and his unit were depleted by arrests but still present, as
sporadic attacks over the summer months showed. On the night of July 14, they
planted a bomb, consisting of 22 sticks of gelignite inside a tin, at the base
of the War Memorial- a granite pillar- and timed it to go off in the early
hours. A second bomb of the same make was planted at an electric terminal just
outside the town. An Orange march was to go through the area the next day as
part of the "Marching Season" and since the memorial commemorated the
British army it was a non-sectarian way for the IRA to voice its position. The
memorial bomb was discovered the next morning, burned out during the last 3
inches of fuse, and the terminal bomb was similarly found. The nuances of
timing and intent were lost on the 1,000 or so Orangemen.[vi]
Towards the end of the month an army lorry was hijacked and set alight in an
unclaimed and unexplained incident.
DAN
MOORE
In August the IRA wrote up a notice addressing the people. Copies were
posted up simultaneously across the north, as well as to embassies, and
Republicans in New York distributed it to UN Delegates.
"The manifesto said the Resistance campaign 'is now more firmly based among our people and grows stronger by the day'. It said that attempts to portray the struggle as sectarian had failed and it was clearly a fight for national unity and independence. It regretted that the members of the RUC and B-Specials had ignored the IRA’s statement at the start of its campaign that they would not be attacked if they did not co-operate with the British Army. Now the RUC and B-Specials 'have been put on a war footing and are used in conjunction with British forces'.[vii] (The full text can be found in the endnotes below.)
On the night of August 8th two young volunteers drove out with a stack of these to tack up around Newry. One was Dan Moore, an 18 year old with a day job at a saw mill. He had recently graduated to the army from the Fianna. As they went up Drumolane they were accosted by an RUC constable; the police duly found Dan's car, complete with a stack of announcements. Dan was sentenced to the Crum, where he was placed in the juvenile wing. [viii] (Police throughout the north spent the day removing the posters).
Dan later recalled for the Newry Journal:
"The authorities were convinced that a bit of military discipline was enough to correct the misguided views and attitudes of the miscreant youths in their care. Joe Leslie, Moody and the other screws in charge of us were ex-marines. In good old-fashioned British war-film tradition they interpreted this as the need for regular ‘square-bashing’. It was supposed to frighten us and turn us into ‘good citizens’.
“I really enjoyed this square-bashing and threw myself enthusiastically into these exercises. I felt I was learning something every morning. As a young volunteer of just eighteen years who hadn’t yet had any drill training on the outside I was convinced I was doing something useful! Arms training we had had, but not drill. Priorities, I suppose!
“After about two months Joe Leslie approached me and asked why I was so patently enjoying the drill exercises. I was young and lacking in subtlety. I answered immediately and with transparent honesty that if we were to do this on the outside, it would be sufficient reason – if one were needed – to imprison us. Sadly, that was the end of my square-bashing!"
As a punishment he was tasked with chopping wood but the sawmill worker
naturally enjoyed this as well. Dan was interned when his sentence ended, and
remained in prison for the duration of the campaign although it would not be
his last term. [ix]
CURFEW
The posters were preliminary to a renewed offensive. On August 10th and 11th
units in South Derry, Tyrone, and Fermanagh launched attacks on a variety of
targets, from customs posts to police barracks at Swartagh and Cranagh. South
Down's contribution was a blitz on infrastructure on the night of the 11th.
That night a "very heavy bomb" which "must have
been centrally planted" destroyed the Northern Ireland Electricity Board's
offices. It "completely wrecked the interior of the building and blew off
the roof," and people returning home late had a “first hand view of the
explosion, which littered the street with debris, account bills, and other
items of office furniture.”[x]
Nearby windows were shattered and debris rained down for 50 yards around. A simultaneous
attack on the GPO's garage destroyed 12 heavy vehicles. "The fire was so
intense that the gates of the garage glowed white in the flames, which licked
the walls of the nearby Town Hall."[xi]
The firemen abandoned attempts to put out the GPO fire and focused on
preventing the conflagration from spreading to the Hall.[xii]
Within hours Topping made good on his promise of “curfew, armored
vehicles and allied matters.” He announced that a curfew was placed on Newry
from 11pm to 5:30 am, effective that night. The curfew was applied to 9 areas
that stretched for 20 miles around the town. The order enumerated that those who
needed to be out after hours could obtain a pass from the police. The penalty
for breaking curfew was 3 years imprisonment and/or 500 pounds.
Designating curfew was within the legal rights assigned to Topping, but an explanation as to why Newry and why then wasn’t given in his order. Newry's bombings paled in comparison to East Tyrone and Fermanagh, where full
scale attacks on the police happened almost nightly. It was unclear to people,
one commentator calling it “a mystery buried in the mind of the Six County
Minister of Home Affairs."[xiii] Bowyer Bell analyzed that Topping "felt it advisable to impose
a curfew rather than risk the Nationalist population being converted to open
defiance of the government."[xiv]
Topping himself was unclear, giving a variety of explanations after the fact. In one of his statements after the curfew he explained
it “was necessary because the large number of outrages there could not have
been carried out without the connivance of sympathisers in the area."[xv] In another he ascribed it to the region's uncooperative response to police investigations.
In still another he said it was “owing to the number of incidents involving loss of
property,”[xvi] an aspect that indeed distinguished Newry from the rest of the north. In
this latter point one can read a certain level concession to those unionist objectors who
had been hounding him for some sort of reaction.
Aside from Topping, the RUC Inspector General Sir Richard Pike
Pim is sometimes credited with the idea. If true, then to understand the Curfew
it helps to consider the man behind it. Pim was a soldier like General
Kimmins, and unlike the homegrown bigots (a la Brookeborough) that dominated
the Unionist political scene. During World War Two he headed Churchill's map
room, a veritable google
earth that collected information on every allied plane, ship, and unit, and
translated the data to maps. Its
effectiveness was such that it earned the envy of President Roosevelt, who subsequently
designed one for himself. After the war he returned home to Belfast and became
the RUC's inspector General, in which position he combated rising crime rates
by plotting out areas as he had in the war. As a professional rather than a loyalist, Pim sympathized with the
plight of Catholics in their relation to the police. He went so far as to
oppose the Emblems act which caused so many altercations around the flying of
the Tricolor throughout the 50's. What that background, one can safely
assume that Pim's suggestion of a curfew in Newry, if indeed his suggestion, was a strategically educated one rather than a
knee-jerk response to the bombing. South
Down, via the Newry Brigade, was the primary facilitator in smuggling arms and men across the border, and many of the attacks on communications and electricity were to provide cover for units going through the area (explained by Mick Ryan in his 2018 memoir My Life in the IRA.)
There has been little or no scholarly
examination of the curfew through government documents, and only cursory
reference in the major histories of the period. As more files are declassified
we may be able to draw a more complete picture.
REACTION
The demographic most affected by the measure were the youth and workers.
Irish night life does typically not commence until around 10 pm and ends long
after midnight. Workers typically worked late and the late evening and early
hours after that were their time to wind down at pubs, clubs, cinemas, and
sporting events- all of which now closed at 11, and taking into account the
time needed for people to conclude business and get home, the effective end of
social time was fairly earlier than that. Newry also was and remains the
primary passage for traffic between north and south on the east coast.
Travelers and commuters found themselves diverted from the highways to rural,
winding back roads. It took up to an hour to navigate through what used to be a
brief drive.
On the first night of the curfew, youths gathered around Margaret square
to defy the curfew. Others, movie-goers and , who came out to stand in line for
films (now cancelled) and other events swelled the numbers until about a thousand
people had assembled in an impromptu protest. The atmosphere was like a fleadh as music started and a
sympathetic bottle plant owner allowed cases of beer to be passed around. When
the bell struck 11 the lights went out on cue, and the crowd took to the
forbidden streets, marching in the direction of the town hall. [xvii]
As they did they started singing The anthem of the Republic, "The
Soldiers Song," which vividly expressed spirits that night:
We'll
sing a song, a soldier's song,
With
cheering rousing chorus,
As
round our blazing fires we throng,
The
starry heavens o'er us;
Impatient
for the coming fight,
And
as we wait the morning's light,
Here
in the silence of the night,
We'll
chant a soldier's song.[xviii]
Among those who were marching that night was Dickie Rodgers, a laborer
in between stints working abroad in England. Breaking curfew was the least
exciting thing he had done: "I joined the British Army when I was just
fourteen (and) fought through the Second World War. I was a paratrooper. I was injured
three times; shot twice, once in the shin and once in the groin."[xix]
He stayed on with the Paras after the war and served in Jerusalem, where one of
his regiment's duties was to enforce a curfew on Zionist guerillas. Rather than
reducing their activity it stoked tensions. He had the correct march and
brusque manner of a Para, but when it came to his hometown his sympathies were
increasingly on the side of the insurgents.
A convoy of police tenders raced ahead of the crowd, and a line of 50
policemen in riot gear formed across the road. A voice echoed over a
loudspeaker entreating the crowd to turn back. They pressed on; the police
charged, batons flew, and the protester reversed their course. The lucky ones,
including Dickie Rodgers, were able to reach a series of side roads which
provided cover. "I can vividly recall the feeling of real fear, fleeing
along with the crowd," a journalist wrote later. "I could hear the
heavy thud of boots from the pursuing, baton-wielding “Specials,” a few yards
behind. Nipping down O’Hagan Street I escaped, as the chase continued up Mill
Street."[xx]
A
handful were injured –from 3 to twelve depending on the source- and 12
arrested. A republican, Barney Larkin, was alone charged with "breach of
the order" and fined one pound. His defense pointed out the curfew was
enforced only 6 hours after being announced.
Although it was commonly described in the papers as a "riot"
there was little or no actual disturbance that night, and no attacks on people
or property. It was however the opening salvo of a month of unrest. The next
night the crowd grew to over 1500, overseen by several hundred policemen.
Protests continued nightly, following the pattern of the first with communal
gathering and good-natured "great craic."[xxi]
The objective was to break the measure symbolically. When the baton charges
became tiresome to both police and protestors, they took to using police cars
to force the people back. Wee Joe Campbell, no doubt miffed to not be involved
himself, recalled anxiously awaiting news in his cell.[xxii]
The town took on the appearance of one at war. A visitor from the James
Connolly Society described "sandbagged strongpoints with ominous
machine-gun slits, yards-deep barbed wire entanglements up the walls and all
around the roof, the armoured car of the 'border patrol,'...tenders for
carrying loads of abuse-shouting B-Specials careening around the streets after
dark..."[xxiii]
The B-Specials tasked with enforcing the curfew were unruly, made their
authority known with violence, and were hostile to Catholics regardless of
politics. Although no one was killed during the curfew a number of people had
died in recent years through B-Special carelessness with arms and the possibility
was very real to the people of Newry.
Some youths commandeered an abandoned linen factory known as Linenhall
to make a stand. In a different life it served as a police barracks and its
layout, a square with a courtyard with two entrances, was ideally designed for
the task of repelling invaders.
They "barricaded themselves into their own self-made citadel.
They would then light a bonfire and wait to repel assailants. Sometime after
the appointed hour for the beginning of the curfew the Crown forces would make
an appearance. . . The outcome was simple to predict. The B-Specials would
drive their Commer armoured tender through the barricade at one of the gates,
and the youths of Linenhall Square would try to prevent them from doing so by
whatever means they deemed necessary. After a bit of a scuffle and stone
throwing the youths would make a tactful withdrawal back to their homes. They
had made their point and honour was upheld."[xxiv]
Another barricade was thrown up on High Street, a steep, narrow
lane that winds up "to where the first purpose built Protestant church in
Ireland, St. Patrick's stands, (which may have inspired Sean Jonathan Swift's
famous rhyme about the town 'High church, low steeple, dirty town proud
people'), in the predominantly Protestant North Ward of Newry. The United
Irishman Patrick Cochrane is buried in its cemetery. Some of Newry's oldest and
best known families came from there, and it had a strong Republican
tradition." A barricade like the one at Linenhall was erected, built and
manned by "crowds of mainly young people, boys and girls." They
defied the B Specials sent to quell the scene and sang songs atop the
barricade.
There was, appropriately, "We Won't go home till the morning:"
We won't go
home till the morning
We won't go home till the morning
We won't go home till the morning
Til daylight has appeared.
Then
there was "Step Together," now little known, but then a classic
marching song from the Tan War:
Step
together, boldly tread
Firm each
foot, erect each head
Fixed in front be every glance
Forward at the word advance
Serried files that foes may dread
Like the dear in mountain heather
Steady boys! And step together.
Despite or because of the threat of baton-charges, children across town
snuck away to join the excitement. From his bedroom in nearby Drumolane 9 year
old Brian could hear the singing on High Street and watched his friends run off
to join the festivities. His father Frank, an Old IRA man, was watching too and
chuckled to himself at seeing the old spirit of defiance rekindled. Brian had
his own curfew of 9pm which Frank enforced. His day to protest would come
later.[xxv]
"THE
NEWRY BRIGADE"
A series of notices from the Newry unit were posted up encouraging
people to join in the resistance, but aside from these the IRA remained in the
background.
The curfew inspired a song in their honor sung to the tune of the
"The Belfast Brigade" (based on the American "Battle Hymm of the
Republic")
W. B. Topping put the curfew
on Newry Town
He thought that he could keep the Newry people down
But he got a rude awakening at eleven o' clock that night
When all the people came out to shout,
Glory, Glory,
to old Ireland,
Glory, Glory to the Sireland
Glory to the memory of the men who fought and died,
No surrender is the warcry of the Newry Brigade
Overnight,
the IRA had turned from unknowns with a curious choice of targets into folk
heroes. "We never had the full backing of the people up to that
point," Oliver McCaul remembered, "after that, we did." Oliver
arrived home from at midnight one night: "The streets were deserted, I was
walking over Francis Street when a door opened, and the lady of the house
called me and said 'Come in son, they are due any minute' meaning a patrol was
due. I went into her house and sure enough, within minutes, a patrol passed.
She then said to me, you can go now, they won't be back for another half hour.
She never asked me who I was, or what I was doing out after curfew. This was
the spirit of the people."[xxvi]
CURFEW
ENDS
The curfew was removed in early September as quickly as it was instated.
The people celebrated with an 11 pm march down Main street,
jubilantly singing and banging pans. "The order has now been in force for
four weeks," Topping said, "During which there has not been any
further incidents."[xxvii]
The IRA punctuated its end with an attack in Newcastle, a resort town on the
rocky coast, sleepier then than today, that destroyed a transformer and empty
prefab buildings that comprised a camp for the Girl Guides (the RUC's female
equivalent of the Scouts or Fianna.) At the end of the month, Kimmins and
Topping met along with a select few government officials and cryptically
announced a new security policy would be put in place.
A question loomed: did the curfew affect the IRA's movement or did
they only step back to let the civil resistance take its course? Both answers,
locked in the memory of men unknown and not given to talking, are equally
possible. Non-involvement in popular events had precedent going back to the
Outdoor Relief Strike of 1931, when republican leaders feared IRA involvement
would be used as a reason to crack down, while if the strikers were left to
themselves, real unity might develop. This is the popularly accepted reason
which the "dogs on the street" tell to this day. And republicans were
confident the tactic worked. The ever-informed Sean Cronin wrote in a booklet
published during the campaign that:
“Stormont grew afraid of what it saw happening in Newry. It had over-reached itself. The mood of the people was ugly. The people were being driven and their point of no return seemed not far away. One week later when in Coalisland, Co. Tyrone, an R.U.C. sergeant was killed after military and police surrounded a deserted house and a booby-trap exploded, Home Affairs Minister Topping was asked if he would apply the curfew to East Tyrone. His reply was “No.” The curfew weapon had failed.”[xxviii]
But the curfew had no political sequel. It did not spark
risings in other cities. The IRA tried to capitalize on it with yet more posters,
for which Two Tan war veterans in Belfast were arrested (one died from lack of
medical treatment.) But without the infrastructure to attack barracks, and
political power to supplant the Northern State, the IRA receded once more into
little more than a nuisance, just as Brookeborough had predicted.
September and October were checkered with a few, but only a few,
“pin-pricks”. Then a column from Wexford, the Vinegar Hill Column, arrived in
Dundalk to recover after a frustrating stint in Armagh before venturing back out. Newry
continued to be one of the few areas that could field columns of their own, and
the Dundalk O/c assigned a handful of on-the-run Newry volunteers to supplement
the Wexford men. Their enterprise resulted in a tragedy that reshaped the war.
[i] http://www.telstudies.org/writings/letters/1919-20/201116_newcombe.shtml
[ii] Irish Independent 08.03.1957, page 6
[iii] Ibid
[iv] Irish times Friday, July 5,
1957
[v] Bell, The Secret Army
[vi] Irish News, July 15th 1957
[vii] 9 August 2007 Edition “The Resistance
Campaign 50 years on” An Phoblacht
[viii] https://www.newryjournal.co.uk/history/living-history/prison-notes/
[ix] ibid
[x] Irish Examiner 1841-current, 12.08.1957, page 5
[xi] http://www.newrymemoirs.com/stories_pages/postofficeaccolade_2.html
[xii] Irish Independent 1905-current, 12.08.1957,
page 7
[xiii] Irish Democrat, October 1957, page 3;
http://www.connollyassociation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/154-Oct57.pdf
[xiv] Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army
[xv] Northern Whig, Wednesday 21 August 1957
[xvi] Fermanagh Herald 1903-current, 14.09.1957, page 3
[xvii] http://www.newrymemoirs.com/stories_pages/newrycurfew_2.html
[xviii] Cork Examiner, Tuesday August 13th 1957
[xix] https://www.newryjournal.co.uk/reminiscence/places/dickie-the-paratrooper/
[xx] http://www.newrymemoirs.com/stories_pages/newrycurfew_1.html
[xxi] ibid
[xxii] ibid
[xxiii] Irish Democrat, October 1957, page 3;
http://www.connollyassociation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/154-Oct57.pdf
[xxiv] https://www.newryjournal.co.uk/reminiscence/places/barracks-curfew-2/
[xxv] Brian Patterson
[xxvi] Song and account from Oliver McCaul, to author.
[xxvii] Fermanagh Herald 1903-current, 14.09.1957, page 3
[xxviii] Sean Cronin, Resistance, retrieved from https://www.cym.ie/documents/Resistance.pdf
The full text of the appeal from the IRA that was posted in early August (printed in Cronin's 'Resistance", see above)
"To the people of Occupied Ireland
The campaign of Resistance in Occupied Ireland which opened on December 12, 1956, is now more firmly based among our people than ever before and grows stronger by the day. The fight is directed against British Occupation of the Six Counties only. Attempts by our enemies to misrepresent the struggle for national unity and independence, and, to further their own ends, channel it along sectarian lines, have failed and will continue to fail. No Irish man or woman is deceived any longer by this blatant British propaganda tactic. When events during the last nine months exposed the falseness of the ‘cross-border’ raiding cry, the new one of ‘Nationalist versus Unionist’ had to be adopted.
The struggle of the Resistance Movement is most certainly not against the Unionist population of the Six Counties. It is not directed against any section of the Irish people or against any Irish man or woman. Its only target is the British Occupation of our country and it will continue until that Occupation ends The Irish people know this well, as they know that British interference in Irish affairs is backed up by military, naval and air garrisons and bases. They know that Ireland will have no peace until this imperial garrison is withdrawn. When this has been done the Irish people themselves will resolve their differences and their nation’s future in friendship, mutual understanding and peace. False propaganda slogans, which are designed to divide us, serve 57 only to maintain British Imperial control over the affairs of the Irish nation. At this hour we appeal to all our people to rally around the banner of a free Ireland and to ignore the differences that have kept us divided in the past. We must end foreign exploitation of our country so that its resources will be handed back to their true owners, the Irish people, and used for the benefit of all. We want to build here a free nation and people with full control over their own political, social and economic life. If this nation is to survive beset as we are by emigration, unemployment and poverty—this is an imperative need.
In a proclamation issued to the people of Occupied Ireland on December 12. 1956, we warned members of the R.U.C. and BSpecial Constabulary that they had nothing to fear from the Resistance provided they did not allow themselves to become the tools of Britain’s armed forces We told them their place was on the side of the freedom fighters. We asked them to stand aside from the struggle altogether if they found such a step too big at this time. Since then these forces have been put on a war-footing and are used in conjunction with British forces to screen military installations, terrorise the civilian population, patrol and search the countryside, engage in punitive expeditions, and generally hound, harry, torture and imprison Irish freedom fighters. This is doing England’s bidding with a vengeance.
The Resistance can hardly be expected to differentiate between men, trained, organised and equipped along military lines (although clad in police uniforms) and British troops. To members of the R.U.C. and B-Special Constabulary, we repeat our call of December 12, 1956. We ask them to remember that they are Irishmen. We ask them to stop being England’s dupes in Ireland. We regret to see the 26-County authorities embarking on a policy of coercion and repression. We ask them to look at Irish history and recall the ruinous effects for Ireland and her people in the past of political repression.
Such measures are no solution for the problems facing our people. Such policies can only result in giving aid and comfort to British Occupation. They do not have the consent of the Irish people to proceed against Republicans. Their actions will not stop the Resistance although they may make more difficult the lot of our people in Occupied Ireland. The people had hoped for, at least, the moral support of that part of Ireland styling itself free.
To all the Irish people, to our glorious dead, to our
imprisoned comrades, we pledge this struggle will go on until British
Occupation ends and our country is allowed settle its affairs in 58 peace. In
the days ahead, the men and women of the Resistance will find courage in the
knowledge that history is watching them and is on their side; that their cause
is great and is unconquerable.”
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